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علوم اجتماعی و جامعه شناسی::
متخصص علوم سیاسی
The political scientists William Miles and Gabriel Sheffer have suggested differentiating between nonethnic "diasporas," which are transnational because they are composed of members of different nationalities, and ethnonational "diasporas," which are transstate.2 I propose the consideration of four ideal types that involve the struc- turing of the collective experience abroad.
In her analysis of transstate loyalties and policies, political scientist Eva Østergaard-Nielsen defines transnational political practices as the "various forms of direct cross-border participation in the politics of their country of origin by both migrants and refugees (such as vot- ing and other support to political parties, participating in debates in the press), as well as their indirect participation via the political institutions of the host country (or international organizations)."12 She stresses the fact that the first dimension, that of the mobility of the actors, is not the most important one.
Though the two political scientists reached opposite con- clusions, the Israeli Yossi Shain and the American Tony Smith have described the increasing influence of this "ethnic lobbying" in the United States now that it has become legitimate for people to state their origins in public discourse.15 This involvement with a foreign country by citizens inevitably raises the question of these hyphen- ated Americans' real allegiance to the United States.
These groups can support a country and its policies or express national sentiment from afar, in what the French political scientist Riva Kastoryano calls "transnational nationalism."16 The situation is different when organizations struggling against a regime whose legitimacy they do not recognize put pressure on their host coun- tries' foreign policy.
The Iranian presence in Los Angeles-which is often called "Irangeles"-studied by the French political scientist Fariba Adelkhah offers a vision of Teheran before the Shah's fall, but a Teheran more Iranian than it was then, "Iranified" by its distance from Iran.17
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